I took this photography during a trip to Serbia. In the midst of a small village, I had the pleasure of meeting an elderly man who possessed a deep passion for France and its history. He honored me by giving me a tour of his incredible collection!

The soldiers' kit

Upon arrival in their unit, the soldier is issued a complete set of equipment, including uniform and weapon, for which they are responsible. Throughout their military service, they must ensure the utmost cleanliness of these items and ensure the perfect functioning of their weapon. Whether in garrison or out in the field, maintaining these belongings occupies a significant portion of the soldier's time. According to regulations, the full kit of a Napoleonic infantryman should weigh around 20 kg, but in practice, soldiers often carry more, sometimes up to 30 kg, on the European roads.

• The Bicorn Hat:

In the collective imagination, Napoleon and his hat are inseparable. It has become the quintessential symbol of this historical figure. Napoleon adopted it during the Consulate when he was shaping his distinctive appearance. He chose to wear two military uniforms, those of the foot grenadiers and the horse chasseurs of the Guard, but he personalized the way he wore the hat. While most officers wore it "en colonne," perpendicular to the shoulders, Napoleon wore it "en bataille," meaning the wings parallel to the shoulders. This simple and understated attire contrasted with the elaborate uniforms of high-ranking officers and their feathered hats. It allowed him to be immediately recognized by his troops on the battlefield.

During the French Revolution, the bicorn hat was adopted along with the cockade, the "carotte" (red pompom), and the yellow braid. In fact, during the war of the revolution, the French infantry replaced the three-cornered hat (tricorne) with the bicorn, wearing it differently from the prescribed way, with one corner in front. This made it easier to handle the weapon.

The hat is made of felted wool fabric. On the upper left edge, a braided cord is sewn and fastened at the bottom with a regimental button. The cord holds a cockade topped with a plume, which is red for the grenadiers.

Later, the appearance of the hat and how it was worn varied with time and fashion. However, it seems that the soldiers generally wore it "en bataille," meaning across or parallel to the shoulders, unlike officers who wore it "en colonne," meaning perpendicular to the shoulders, with both points forward and backward. Napoleon wore it "en bataille," just like his enlisted men.

Its use in the army came to an end in 1806 when it was replaced by the shako or the bearskin cap. Only the staff, administration, generals, marshals, and officers not on active duty continued to wear it.

• Uniform:

Young soldiers take pride in receiving their first uniform, even if it is often not brand new. The early Empire "à la française" uniform closely resembles that of 1793 in terms of color (national blue) and cut, based on the 1786 regulations. The uniform was loose in 1800, but over the years, the silhouette became more streamlined, and the length of the coat was raised. These changes were made without regard to the soldiers' comfort and without uniformity.

The breeches, gaiters, and stockings that soldiers are required to wear are often seen as cumbersome during marches. After the first bivouac, these items are often abandoned on the way because the "ignoble breeches," as Elzear Blaze calls them, constrict the calf and hinder free movement. These discarded items are replaced by the loose-fitting trousers provided in the infantryman's kit, which are more suitable for camp life. To protect themselves from rain and cold, soldiers also have a gray or beige cape starting from 1806.

• Footwear:

The words of Napoleon Bonaparte, 'Speed, speed, speed,' could succinctly encapsulate the essence of his strategic genius. The Napoleonic army moved twice as fast as its adversaries, possessing both an advantage and a feat, both supported by an accessory that was (almost) always faltering: the soldiers' footwear.

Arguably, no campaigns were as grueling as the Napoleonic campaigns. While good physical condition is essential for a competent soldier, the conscripts of the Napoleonic wars needed to have ironclad health more than any other. Perhaps, none could have imagined the harshness and endurance required for soldiers to face forced marches on often treacherous and chaotic terrain.

Shoes are a strategic element and a constant concern for Napoleon. Upon their incorporation or at the start of a campaign, soldiers are provided with three pairs of shoes, with no distinction between the right and left foot. The soles are studded, and there are only three sizes available. Often made from poor-quality leather, the shoes deteriorate after a few days of marching. Soldiers wear them without socks to soften the shoe and their feet, often applying a mixture of egg, suet, and brandy on the inside. To protect against the cold during winter campaigns, soldiers can line their shoes with felt.

• Haversack:

To carry spare belongings, the infantryman is equipped with a haversack made of cowhide supported by two straps. The interior of this backpack consists of four compartments. The bottom one contains spare items: two rolled shirts, stockings, handkerchiefs, a collar, gaiters, and above them is the canvas or knitted trousers. A kit of small supplies (pins, thread, patience for buttons, blanco for the leather, etc.) for maintaining the uniform is stored in a corner. The double pocket should contain the shoes, brush, cartridge box wax, and soiled linen.

In fair weather, the cape is worn over the haversack and attached with two straps. In garrison, the bag remains in the barracks and is inspected monthly. In the field, it serves as a pillow, a table, or a chair. During battles, the soldier must keep the haversack on their back. In addition to the personal items in the bag, soldiers also carry camping equipment (tools, cooking pot), distributed among the men in the company.

• Rifle and Cartridge Box:

The Model 1777 rifle is the primary weapon of the infantryman. Modified in Year IX and Year XIII, it was produced in nearly 2 million copies. Without the bayonet, it measures 1.515 meters, which is the minimum size for a soldier to easily load the weapon through the barrel. In units, the rifles are marked with the company letter and the individual's number, and any other marking or customization is prohibited. In the first weeks of their enlistment, soldiers learn how to handle their rifles and fire them. Each must know how to maintain it and not lose it under the threat of a heavy fine. A bayonet is mounted on the rifle to turn it into a melee weapon.

A black leather cartridge box is worn by the soldier to store the ammunition. The cartridge box can hold up to 35 rounds and is also used to carry a vial of oil for weapon maintenance, along with flints and spare lead bullets. Regular maintenance of the cartridge boxes is crucial, especially ensuring their waterproofness through regular waxing.

• Edged Weapon:

Soldiers also carry an additional edged weapon called the "briquet" sword. However, this sword is more often used as a versatile tool rather than a true offensive or defensive weapon. In 1807, Napoleon decided to issue it only to grenadiers and non-commissioned officers, and in 1809, he considered replacing them with tools such as an axe and a pick. However, due to the dissatisfaction of the soldiers and the burden of carrying the replacement equipment, the project was eventually abandoned.

The Grognards

Napoleon was a skilled propagandist and contributed to shaping the myth of the "grognards," a nickname given to the soldiers of the Grande Armée. These soldiers often complained about their living conditions but were motivated by their appetite for glory and social recognition. Napoleon successfully established an almost mystical bond with these grognards, portraying them as individuals with a generous and loyal nature, possessing a remarkable sense of military honor, and displaying genuine devotion to France. However, historical sources indicate that these veterans were often more inclined to serve Napoleon than to serve their homeland.

The pillars of Napoleon's conquests, the emperor's troops were accustomed to nights in the open air, forced marches, and the terrible wounds of battles.

Nearly two and a half million young individuals served in the Napoleonic army, which fought battles across Europe in the early 19th century. Some volunteered, driven by patriotism, admiration for Napoleon, or simply the desire to escape poverty, and even for the thrill of adventure. Others, on the contrary, were conscripts, drafted into service by lottery, and had to quickly acclimate to the harsh environment in which they were compelled to serve. Most joined infantry regiments that traversed the entire continent, from the Atlantic coasts to the snow-covered plains of Russia.

During wartime, soldiers engaged in long marches, covering up to 40 km per day while carrying around 20 kilograms, surprising the enemy with their speed and distance. Accustomed to being requisitioned, recruits had become experts in the art of living spontaneously. At the end of the day, in the best-case scenario, the troops rested under tents set up in makeshift camps; more commonly, however, they bivouacked and lit a wood fire to sleep with just a blanket.

Some numbers :

The Grande Armée, under the command of Napoleon I from 1804 to 1814, and again during the Hundred Days in 1815, served as Napoleon's imperial army. Napoleon himself personally led it. Under his leadership, Napoleon organized the conscription of 185,000 men during the Consulate, and during the Empire, he mobilized over 2 million soldiers, which represented 36% of eligible men and 7% of the total population of the time. (For comparison, a century later, during World War I, 8 million men, or 20% of the total population, were mobilized.)

Enthusiasts or detractors, many engage in a war of numbers to applaud or condemn the military operations of Bonaparte and their human cost. What is the actual truth behind it?

Before considering the figures put forth by historians, it's important to note that before the contemporary era, human losses were either not counted or poorly documented, leaving room for partisan speculations that were often excessively high or low. Jacques Houdaille (1924–2007), a professor at several American universities and a research director at the National Institute of Demographic Studies (1970–1988), used military registration records to assess the losses of the Army of the Land under the First Empire. His studies in historical demography are now considered the most reliable by historians and specialists in Napoleonic history. From the outset of his study, he draws attention to:

A confusion, difficult to avoid, between soldiers killed in combat and soldiers who died or disappeared under the Empire [which] allowed for particularly fanciful claims. Even for the losses of the French army, it was challenging to distinguish between those born in France within its 1815 borders and Belgians, Italians, Rhinelanders, and Dutch born in the departments annexed between 1792 and 1811.

This provides a glimpse into the challenges, knowledge, and mastery of research protocols and historical tools, as well as the patience required for undertaking such a study.

For France alone, relying on the works of Jacques Houdaille and other historians, a range of human losses during the mentioned period can be established, with a high estimate of one million deaths and a low estimate of 400,000 deaths. Although estimation remains challenging, as rightly noted by Thierry Lentz, director of the Fondation Napoléon, it can reasonably be argued that the average range, approximately 700,000 French deaths, is the closest to the truth.

In European losses and during major battles:

These fifteen years of history certainly did not only affect the French. The European toll is also significant, with the current average estimate standing at around two million deaths, encompassing the human losses of Russia (500,000 men), Prussia and Austria (500,000 men), Poland and Italy (200,000 men), Spain and Portugal (700,000 men), and Britain (300,000 men).

The assessments are further refined through the meticulous studies of battles conducted by Danielle and Bernard Quintin, following the method of Jacques Houdaille. For instance, at the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), there were 1,538 deaths on the French side out of 72,500 combatants, representing 2.12% of the forces. At Eylau (February 1807), there were 2,711 deaths and 44 presumed dead, accounting for a 5% loss, and at Friedland (June 1807), there were 1,849 men killed, 68 presumed dead, and 341 missing.

When I look at this photo...

While gazing at this vintage uniform, I can't help but wonder how many soldiers wore it, how many perished in it. How many kilometers did it journey, and through how many countries did it traverse? My thoughts turn to the rain, the snow, and the mud. I envision the horrors of battlefields, the echoing cries and gunfire. The clinking of sabers! But I also hear the laughter and banter of weary "Grognards", huddled around a campfire in the evening.

Sources of my research:

https://www.napoleon.org/

https://blog.napoleon-cologne.fr/

https://www.histoire-et-civilisations.com/thematiques/epoque-contemporaine/les-soldats-de-napoleon-une-vie-a-la-dure-2305.php

Wikipédia

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